ITALICA Introduction The Roman cities of the Iberian peninsula are known from a patchwork of fragmentary sources. Some cities are known only by a name which has not been linked to a particular site. Other cities are known only through their archaeological or epigraphic remains. Compared with the other cities of Iberia, Italica is exceptionally well known. Yet there remain large gaps in our knowledge. The traveler will be most familiar with the important archaeological remains: the theater, the amphitheater, the baths, and the luxurious houses. An extensive collection of religious, honorary, and funerary inscriptions on stone and bronze add to our knowledge. Finally, historians writing in Latin and Greek have left us a number of informative passages dealing with the foundation and fortunes of the city. Those who study Italica must weave together these disparate and sometimes contradictory sources in order to arrive at a coherent picture of life in the ancient city. The historian Appian tells us that the Roman general Scipio settled his wounded soldiers at Italica late in the second century BCE following the war against the Carthaginian Hannibal. The name of the settlement suggests that the settlers were Italians. Yet the city founded by Scipio was placed next to an earlier Iberian settlement. One of the major problems facing those who study the Roman provinces is the description of how the Roman and indigenous cultures interacted to form a provincial culture which was distinct from the source cultures. The Roman soldiers, traders, and settlers did not "romanize" the local populations. Instead, Roman culture itself was transformed through contact with its empire. Government of the Roman provinces was carried out by officials from Italy only at the highest levels of administration. The emperor, provincial governors, and other imperial officials had limited resources. Thus, the day to day governing of cities fell to the local, indigenous elite. These aristocratic locals formed patronage bonds with imperial administrators, bonds which provided locals with support and prestige. Local officials, imperial administrators, and the emperor himself all used their wealth to transform the cities of the empire. We can see this in Italica at all levels. The benefactions of local individuals paid for a rebuilding of the theater. The emperor Hadrian, who was born in Italica, paid for an entirely new section of the city, complete with houses, baths, and a massive amphitheater. The competitive game of winning and providing favors was carried out by the elite. The mass of the population attended games and performances paid for by the elite of the city, but the concerns of the common people, as they are revealed on tombstone inscriptions, were entirely different than those of the local aristocracy. Public spectacle was an integral part of the life of the Roman city. Originally, theatrical and gladiatorial combats were held in temporary theaters and amphitheaters. It is not until the first century CE that we begin to see permanent structures built both in Rome and the provinces. By the end of the first century, only emperors could put on games in the city of Rome. In Italica, games and theatrical performances would have been funded by the local aristocracy. A magistrate might be required to fund games, but many aristocrats might put on performances to celebrate an honor or commemorate a death. The theater and amphitheater have been well excavated, but the activities which took place in these structures must be pieced together from other sources, including a decision of the senate found in Italica. The religious practices of the inhabitants of Italica are known from inscriptions honoring indigenous and Roman gods. These inscriptions show that worship of indigenous gods was tolerated by the Roman state. Certain foreign gods, such as Egyptian Isis, blended seamlessly into the polytheistic collection of Roman gods. A different type of worship can be seen in the excavated temple honoring the deified emperor Trajan. This complex would have contained a massive temple and various statues of the deceased emperor depicted in heroic nude. While worship of emperors sounds strange to the modern ear, it must be remembered that ancient religions were based on correct practice of rituals rather than on belief. Italica was in decline by the end of the third century CE. Part of the new section of the city built by Hadrian was now uninhabited and outside a newer defensive wall. Gradual abandonment of the site led to the decay of buildings, which allowed new building on the site. Today, the majority of the ancient city is underground, and it will remain there. Our challenge is to use the sources we do have. Those interested in further study may find sources for public spectacle, the hierarchy of local society, indigenous and imperial religion, and the conquest of Iberia in the next section of the module.