LISBON Introduction In the same year (1147) the armies of the emperor of Germany and the French king, which marched out with great pride under illustrious commanders, came to nothing, because 'God despised them'... Meanwhile a naval force that was made up of ordinary, rather than powerful, men, and was not supported by any great leader, except Almighty God, prospered a great deal better, because they set out in humility. For although few, with God's help in their battles they gained possession from the many of a city in Spain which is called Lisbon... Henry of Huntington, Historia Anglorum (c. 1149) The Capture of Lisbon (1147): Christian Crusade in Twelfth-Century Iberia An illuminated manuscript from the sixteenth-century Chronicle of Alfonso [enlarge] From a medieval European perspective, the military expedition to the Holy Land commonly referred to as the Second Crusade (1145-1149) was a demoralizing failure. Contemporaries in the Christian kingdoms of Iberia, however, had reason to feel more sanguine about the outcome of the period's crusading activity. In addition to the Spanish capture of Almerˆda (1147) and Tortosa (1149), northern crusaders enroute to the Levant assisted King Afonso Henriques of Portugal in the seizure of Lisbon from its Muslim occupants in October, 1147. The capture of Lisbon, the future capital of Portugal, was regarded by twelfth-century Christians as one of the Second Crusade's greatest successes. Modern historians tend to echo that judgement, although they have debated over the exact connections between the conquest of the city and the broader crusading movement. Most of what we know regarding Lisbon's fall comes from a detailed account of the siege written by an English participant in that event, De expugnatione Lyxbonensi (The Conquest of Lisbon). After assembling at the port of Dartmouth in England, a league of Anglo-Norman, Flemish and German soldiers set sail for the Levant in May, 1147. Reaching the north-west coast of the Iberian peninsula after a fierce storm, the expedition stopped at the city of Oporto on the Douro River around June 16th. The fleet was greeted there by the bishop of Oporto, Peter Pitšes (1146-1152), who bore a letter from King Afonso Henriques inviting the northerners to rendezvous with him at Lisbon. The next day, the Bishop Peter delivered an impassioned sermon exhorting the members of the expedition to comport themselves like soldiers of Christ and to defend the Church against its enemies. Arrival of Crusader Fleet at Lisbon [enlarge] After waiting for stray ships to arrive, the fleet proceeded to the mouth of the Tagus river and disembarked on June 28th outside of Lisbon. A meeting was arranged with the expectant King Afonso, who requested the warriors' aid in assaulting the city. A round of debate followed, since some members of the expedition were reluctant to accept the king's proposal. The Conquest of Lisbon "records" a rousing speech by one of the fleet's prominent figures, Hervey de Glanvill, who helped to settle the dissension in the ranks. An agreement was then established with the Portuguese ruler: In return for certain privileges and the spoils of the captured city, the "Franks" (as the northerners were known) would assist Afonso in besieging Lisbon. The Conquest of Lisbon reports that the leaders of the Christian army decided to parley with the Muslims before assaulting the city, "so that we might not appear to be attacking them except unwillingly." The following section of the text includes some of its most captivating passages, as the bishop of Oporto and John, archbishop of Braga (1138-1175), declare the Christian justifications for attacking Lisbon to the Muslim alcayde. The author also presents the Muslim elder's response to these declarations, revealing how a contemporary Latin author understood the Islamic reaction to the idea and practice of Christian crusade. Around July 1st, the siege of Lisbon began in earnest with the use of rams, towers, catapults and the sapping of the city walls. Over the following months both sides suffered losses. The Christian attackers constructed two churches for the burial of their dead, while the Muslim inhabitants' desperation became evident when some Arabic letters pleading for assistance fell into enemy hands. On October 19th, trying to rouse the demoralized Christian army, an English priest possessing a relic of the True Cross (perhaps The Conquest of Lisbon's author) delivered a rousing sermon exhorting the crusaders to battle in Christ's name. A renewed round of fighting ensued until the Muslims, foreseeing the fall of the city, requested a truce and declared their intention to surrender to King Afonso. Disagreement in the Christian camp erupted over the honor of entering the city first and the imminent division of the spoils. After considerable debate and armed clashes, a contingent of Anglo-Norman, Flemish and German soldiers entered Lisbon with the Portuguese king on October 24, 1147. According to the English author of The Conquest of Lisbon, while the Anglo-Normans remained orderly, the Flemings and Germans were responsible for the sack of Lisbon that followed, including the death of the city's Mozarabic bishop. Despite this shameful event, however, in his conclusion the author clearly expresses his belief that the capture of the city was the work of God. Iberian Christian Warriors from the Period of Lisbon's Conquest (from the Lorvão Apocalypse) [enlarge] Aware of the Second Crusade's shortcomings in the eastern Mediterranean, twelfth-century chroniclers across Europe took note of this smaller expedition's success on the westernmost border between Christianity and Islam, indirectly echoing the sentiments found in The Conquest of Lisbon. Clearly, certain contemporaries saw the attack on Lisbon as part of a larger Christian campaign against non-believers in the Holy Land, north-central Europe and Iberia. In these terms, the capture of the city was a justified act of reconquest, contributing to the defense of the Church and the redemption of Christian warriors serving God. Of course, for the Muslims of Lisbon and non-Latin Christians elsewhere, these expeditions were another round of aggressive expansion by the "Frankish" barbarians of the West. Modern scholars continue to debate about the exact connections between these various theaters of crusading, as well as about the motivations of the Christian crusaders. Was the attack on Lisbon a genuine crusade or an act of political expansion, conveniently taking advantage of the period's crusading activity? Were the expedition's soldiers motivated by greed or Christian piety? Were the two mutually exclusive? How did the realities of conquest accord with or belie the ideals of a just war? The links provided here allow those interested to examine the conquest of Lisbon from the perspective of one English participant, to place it into the broader context of twelfth-century crusading, and to explore the Muslims' reaction to the Christian expansion in Iberia before, during and after the events of 1147.